A Study On Football Hooliganism Sociology Essay

A Study On football Hooliganism Sociology EssayBefore talking about football game hooliganism, it offshoot moldiness be clear how this phenomenon is defined. What is football hooliganism? In the literature some(prenominal) definitions ar given, unless actually none of them unfeignedly covers the building block problem, we believe. The main(prenominal) reason for that is that hooliganism is something that has expanded all over the world which makes it is a very complicated problem actually. Between the countries, and even within countries and golf clubs, on that point are many differences. For example some hooligan themes are very well organised, others not one group is more violent than the other some military unit is directly related to sport, other not, etc. So you can say that hooliganism is many-sited and worldwide, what makes it a very complex problem. Eric Dunning stated that there actually is no precise definition of football hooliganism it lacks legal definition, precise demarcation of membership and is used to cover a cast of actions which take place in more or less directly football-related contexts (Spaaij, 2005). We take this as our starting argue in this paper, showing that the problem is very complicated and very tight to lash out.To Guilianotti there are two important types of football violence. Some violent behaviour can be called extemporaneous, other violence is more organized. The first type, the spontaneous violence can be caused by a wrong decision of the referee for example or even by a wrong discussion of someone. These are situations that couldnt be foreseen and it can lead to total chaos. It is very dangerous and it requires a fast reaction of the natural law. The latter type, the organised violence, may even be more dangerous and larger of size. The battlefield in Beverwijk Holland is a unspoilt example of this type of violence. Two hooligan groups (Ajax and Feyenoord hooligans) met each other at an unmannerly fie ld and fought with each other. The rest is history one man died. Even today this event has a capital impact. But this is only one example, and so many other examples can be mentioned here to illustrate the problem of well-organised hooligan fights against other groups and the police. Even innocent people, like father and son, are not unafraid anymore in those situations. Through the years many things had changed and organisation of violent behaviour actually became easier due to the internet and mobile telephones for example. Another point is that the stadium is not the anonymous place anymore as it used to be in the past. The security had become a plenty better, so it became harder to guffaw in the stadium itself. Rioters now find other, more anonymous places where they can still go on with their illegal activities. This makes it of course harder to control for the police. The preceding examples were fitting given to illustrate how difficult the phenomenon hooliganism is and h ow many problems it entails. The above distinction by Guilianotti (spontaneous vs. organised) is a very general one and it does not cover the whole problem according to us. Spaaij makes some(prenominal) efforts to give a more precise definition of football hooliganism. By trying to conceptualize the phenomenon he had to deal with several problems. Below, some of well-nigh the relevant problems are briefly described to show how difficult it is to define hooliganism.1. In the past hooligans mainly fought against other hooligans. Actually, nowadays there are a handle of examples where hooligans attacked the police or other innocent people, like normal sports fans. This is very dangerous of course because now nobody is safe anymore. 2. Where the violence used to be in and around the stadiums, now it more and more spread to all kind of other places like housparties, open handle and other locations that are not related to the sport. This shift in violence is probably due to the bette r security in and around the stadiums. So it solidly becomes a wider and more incontrollable problem. Like the first problem this is a very important point in this paper. 3. Football hooliganism not al directions fashion violence in the way of really attacking other people or demolishes all kinds of stuff. For al lot of so-called hooligans, group feeling is most important and violence is not a priority. To them it is all more symbolic opposition. 4. Like Guilianotti stated already, not all the incidents are well-planned. Actually there are a lot of situations where the violence was not planned at all. Like said before one single event can lead to a big riot. This is dangerous of course because of the surprise element and it becomes harder to counter by the police. Many people, like the police, think that hooligan groups are always very well-organised, but this is definitely not always the case. The rate of organisation differs from country to country and even within countries and clubs there are many differences. Some groups have a real hierarchical (criminal) organisation, like in the army, while other groups just fight with almost no organisation at all. This is another point what makes it so difficult to define hooliganism. Although, there is no precise definition of football hooliganism almost everybody acknowledge the problem of the violence that seems to go hand in hand with this specific group of football fans. The finishing thirty years it really became a sociological problem en many efforts had been made to attack this so-called English decease. A lot of different legal community strategies led to a decrease of violent behaviour in and around the stadiums in many countries all over the world. But despite all the efforts that are made, hooliganism remains a disturbing problem (Spaaij, 2001). The next chapter describes some good on the job(p) prevention strategies to counteract hooliganism.How to prevent football hooliganism?As mentioned in the in troduction, football hooliganism is a very old phenomenon. Even in the 1870s, when the patch got its modern form in England, there was violent behaviour of spectators (Dunning, 1986). But the last thirty, forty years the problems did become bigger and bigger and the phenomenon became a real societal problem. Something had to change and the authorities did a lot to prevent the violence that comes with hooliganism. But what is a good strategy to prevent this complex problem?First, it must be clear that there is not a single strategy to fight hooliganism. In the previous chapter it was stated that there are a lot of differences between groups in every country and city. Every group has its own characteristics which entails different problems. So one has to look at the specific problems causes by an group and theSpaaij gives some good working strategiesIt is as well as important that there is an inter peopleal and national exchange of prevention strategies. Good-working strategies in o ne city or nation could then be implemented in another city or nation for example. So, successful prevention of football hooliganism requires cooperation between a variety of institutions and agents, and also between football clubs and fan clubs. Their commitment is very important and the task is to continue the development to make even better strategies for the future . all over the years many successful strategies are developed to prevent football violence. Like is said before these strategies came from all over the world thanks to the great effort of many relevant authorities. Now some four forms of prevention are discussed briefly. First, the police forces are discussed. There has been a change in policing football matches. It used to be very aggressive just responding to the problems as they arise. Thats why the police got a bad name, especially in Southern and Eastern europium and in Latin America (Frosdick, Holford and Sidney, 1999). They used too much violence according to a lot of people and this had a counterproductive effect. So something had to change. The last ten years the policing changed into more proactive and intelligence-led, especially in Britain, The Netherlands, Germany and Belgium. This so called proactive and intelligence-led policing is advanced and appears to be very successful in these countries. Special police officers for example are closely monitoring the activities of hooligan groups. So the police forces are now trying really hard to prevent violence, whereas the old way of policing actually was just a reaction to the violence. Nevertheless, significant variations exist in the investments made in intelligence-led policing in different countries and in different localities (Spaaij, 2005). Second, fan projects as a prevention strategy. An important aim of a fan club is to improve the relationship between the hooligans and the club. However, it is difficult to determine the preventative effects of fan clubs. Evidence suggests tha t certain projects have improved the relationship between hooligans, clubs, youth workers and the police, and have prevented young fans from identifying with football hooliganism (Bieleman, De Jong, Naayer and Nijboer, 2004). But there are also hooligan groups who dont want to be in a fan club. They want to distinguish themselves from regular fans and they will go on with their hooligan activities. Third, the football club itself has a major role in preventing hooliganism. For a very long time clubs where trying to please the hooligans, by giving them free tickets and an own dirt within the stadium for example, because they were afraid of reprisals. All this favours only led to expansion of the group and that couldnt have been the intention of the clubs (Spaaij and Vias, 1996). So clubs have to make a statement, they have to take action, just like FC Barcelona did with their zero-tolerance policy for example.Fourth, and finally, real football fans are important in the prevention of hooliganism. With their supporters organizations they can achieve a lot of good for the sport. They are against racism and violence and they cooperate with many institutes. Many of these supporters organizations contribute to conferences, debates or educational programmes promoting the positive social functions of sport. This is a very good thing, especially for young fans, because they are learning that violence is a bad thing and that this is not good for the sport.ReferencesDunning, Eric, Murphy, Patrick Williams, John Spectator Violence at Football Matches Towards a Sociological Eplanation, 1986Dunning, Eric Towards a sociological understanding of football hooliganism as a world phenomenon, 2000Giulianotti, Richard A different kind of carnival, 2001Spaaij, Ramon The prevention of football hooliganism a transnational perspective, 2005

Comparative Analysis on Kikuyu

Comparative Analysis on KikuyuComparative Analysis on Kikuyu inside the SPE and Post-SPE Framework Term Paper for Foundations of Phonology CourseIntroductionThis paper aims at observing the data identify of Kikuyu diction. Two mannikins are compared, i.e. the fit figure of speech of English (henceforth SPE), and Post SPE (Auto fractional Phonology). Within the discussion, approaches form different theories leave withal be highlighted however, the main point addressed in this paper is to prize the data set of Kikuyu on the basis of phonological theories within the cardinal manakins involved. found on SPE theory, the lexical entries should consist of sufficient information for the phonological incurs in give to identify its phonetic forms for distributively context. In other words, each lexical entry is entered as a set of phonological distinctive device characteristics. Further much, the primal representation (UR) is considered as an abstract representation in compari son to a surface representation (SR). Along the paper, we forget discuss both frameworks together with throw notations and then we provide analyze the data set segment eachy to witness the rules governing the language of Kikuyu.In the next section, we willing attempt to analyze the variability of the incorporate articulary apparatus with the spirit of the Post-SPE framework driven by a number of questions in the optimization of the data set analysis of with respect to the framework inquestion. During the analysis, we will not consider some basic requirements such as No Crossing Constraint and Linking Constraint in order to be legitimate with the well-formedness condition of Post-SPE framework. Furthermore, we will alike approach the so-c everyed geometry of phonetic representations accompanied by sufficient examples to figure out any possible solution.One of the fundamental issues addressed within this paper is the analysis on the shimmy of nasal + amenable with respect t o the precondition(p)(p) data set. We will try to compare two theories in question and keep back how those theories could account for the changes in the data set. At a later stage, we will perk up which theory casts better analysis of the given data than the other does.Some literatures will be considered especially those from the textbook of Phonological Theory The Essential Readings by Goldsmith, J. such as The Sound Pattern of English by Chomsky, N. and Halle, M., among others, as well as relevant sources which might give us more information about the language of Kikuyu. Now, let us go through the analysis from the first framework, i.e. the SPE framework.The SPE FrameworkThe SPE framework is believed to be the basis of Generative Phonology since theories within this framework were influenced by the views from generative linguals. Chomsky and Halle (in Goldsmith, 1999 17-19) states that a speakers knowledge of his language consists of knowing the lexical stops of the langua ge and each lexical entry must contain specified features, which determine the phonetic form of the item in all contexts, i.e. the items phonological features. Furthermore, such phonological features are classificatory devices, they are binary, as are all other classificatory features in the lexicon, for the vivid way of indicating whether or not an item belongs to a particular category is by means of binary features.There will be two levels of representations that will be discussed in the SPE framework underlying representation (i.e. lexical or morphophonemic sequence) and the surface form (i.e. phonetic output form). Given the authors aim at maximizing the simplicity of the grammar, it follows that underlying representations should be as abstract as possible and avoid redundant, or non-distinctive, features. Minimized underlying representations are indeed a requirement to ensure the generality of the overall linguistic system.Within this framework, we will analyze the data set on the language of Kikuyu in the spirit of geomorphological analysis, overview on any possible alternation within the dataset, as well as identifying the underlying representation (UR) from the given data set. Following this analysis, we will try to asseverate possible rules with feature notation of the given data in order to get a generalized rule ordering within the data set. For this analysis, we also refer to the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) chart, especially for the consonants chart and their features. Let us try to analyze the data set from the morphological analysis with the given data set below.The data set of Kikuyu is given below in plank 1 Imperative---1 sg. rickety--English Meaning ura------mbureet?--------lop off aara-----mbaareet?-------look at t?ma------nd?meet?--------cut gobblera------ndomeet?--------send reha------ndeheet?--------pay ru?a------ndu?eet?--------cook cina------ineet?--------burn koma ------?gomeet?--------sleep kera------?gereet?--------cross ?ora------?goreet?--------buy ?aja------?gajeet?--------divideFrom get across 1, we stooge see that there are two forms to reward, the one being Imperative and the other being the 1-sg-Imperfect from data set of Kikuyu language, which is followed by its meaning in English. The give in shows that for each given word, several letters remain same(predicate), which is typed in Bold inside the word. Most of them seem to keep up a Vowel and Consonant order (VC) and a long vowel one (i.e. VVC) such as in aara. Furthermore, we keister also see in the Imperative newspaper column in which all words are always ended with a, marked after a slash sign (-). Subsequently, the words in the first singular Imperfect column are always ended with an eet?, which is also separated by a slash (-). A complete data set analysis is given in table 2 below. circuit board 2 Imperative-------------1 sg. Imperfect---------- --English Translation ur - a--------------------mbur - eet?----------------------lop off aar- a--------------------mbaar- eet?----------------------look at t?m - a--------------------nd?m - eet?----------------------cut tom - a--------------------ndom - eet?----------------------send reh - a--------------------ndeh - eet?----------------------pay ru? - a--------------------ndu? - eet?----------------------cook cin - a--------------------in - eet?----------------------burn kom - a--------------------?gom - eet?----------------------sleep ker - a--------------------?ger - eet?----------------------cross ?or - a--------------------?gor - eet?----------------------buy ?aj - a--------------------?gaj - eet?----------------------divideFrom table 2, we rear see that the unchanged letters, which are Bold typed above, are the stems or could be part of the stems of the word in underlying representation. Furthermore, we bottomland also see suffixes, which indicate the Imperativeness or the given words that are signaled as the final letter a at the final position of the word. From the regularity of the final letters eet?, we can separate that the given words must be classified as suffixes indicating the 1 sg. Imperfect form of Kikuyu language. We will discuss the underlying forms of the morphemes regularity in a separate discussion in a later part. Now let us see the structure of the nasal sound which occurs before the stems.It is conceivable that an alternation is defined as a morpheme, which has two different sound shapes, which can be analyzed by a phonological process. From the data set of Kikuyu, the some alternations can be notice as indicated in the following table (see table 3). The alternations can be identified easily in that becomes b t /r becomes d c becomes ? k / ? becomes g. Those alternations can be viewed as the alternations in the language of Kikuyu whose phonological proce ss will be explored in rules. tabularize 3 Imperative------------1 sg. Imperfect In a.b.-------------------------mb In c.d.t-------------------------nd In e.f.r-------------------------nd In g.c--------------------------- In h. i. k-----------------------?g In j. k. ?-----------------------?gFurthermore, we can also see that a nasal consonant is inserted before the changed consonant, e.g. m n ? and ?, which suggests that the morphological process goes along with the phonological process. Such origination shows us important points for the data set in the language of Kikuyu. We will discuss such phenomenon in greater concern in later part. However, there is one thing to say about this phenomenon in the insertion of nasal consonant in the 1 sg. Imperfect groups could be analyzed as certain prefixes embedded which might express the tense of a verb. Whenever the alternation is constructed in an opposite way, i.e. b becomes in data set, this lead to an ill formed construct ion. Such a case is also falsifiable from data h. and j. in which ?g would become k and ? individually following the case. Therefore, we will consider the sequence of alternation as from Imperative to 1 sg. Imperfect. The reanalysis of the stems of both forms is illustrated in table 4 below. two prefixes (nasals) and suffixes ( a and eet?) are discarded in table 4 so that we can get the stem of each verb.Table 4. Imperative--------------1 sg. Imperfect--------------English Meaning ur---------------------bur-------------------------------lop off aar--------------------baar------------------------------look at t?m---------------------d?m-------------------------------cut tom---------------------dom-------------------------------send reh---------------------deh-------------------------------pay ruc---------------------du?-------------------------------cook cin---------------------?in-------------------------------burn kom------------ ---------gom-------------------------------sleep ker---------------------ger-------------------------------cross ?or---------------------gor-------------------------------buy ?aj---------------------gaj-------------------------------divideWhat we mother detect so far indicates that phonological components are obtained by mapping from the underlying representation (UR) to the surface (phonetic) representation (SR). This mapping phenomenon can be observed by rewrite rules which will be discussed in a separate part. In other words, the data set of Kikuyu we have so far could be considered as the Surface Representation. In the following paragraphs, we attempt to identify the underlying representation of the Kikuyu language.As noted above, we have seen that the unchanged letters in table 2 could be analyzed as the stems or part of the stems of the words in the underlying representation. On the basis of minimization of the underlying representation we will attempt to r ule in the consonant before the unchanged letters because it seems to be implausible to predict the consonants such as , t, r, c, k, ? by rule. Furthermore, we have also observed that the consonant can shift to b not the vice versa. Referring to the SPE theory, minimizing the underlying representation means that anything, which can be predicted by a rule, should be eliminated from the underlying representation. For instance, the shifting from to b can be viewed in table 4 which is exemplified by the shifting is from ur to bur. Such process also applies to all other words in the data set. By definition, we could get something like /ur/ to be the actual stem for underlying representation of the word, which means lop off in Kikuyu. The stems in underlying representation in the data set are presented in table 5 below and the Underlying Representations for the Imperative and 1 sg. Imperfect are represented in table 6.Table 5 UR Stem English Meaning /ur/ lop off /aar/ look at /t?m/ cut /tom/ send /reh/ pay /ru?/ cook /cin/ burn /kom/ sleep /ker/ cross /?or/ buy /?aj/ divideTable 6 Imperative UR 1 sg. Imperfect UR English Meaning /ur - a/ /Nas - bur -eet lop off /aar - a/ /Nas - baar-eet look at /t?m - a/ /Nas - d?m -eet cut /tom - a/ /Nas - dom -eet send /reh - a/ /Nas - deh -eet pay /ru? - a/ /Nas - du? -eet cook /cin - a/ /Nas - ?in -eet burn /kom - a/ /Nas - gom -eet sleep /ker - a/ /Nas - ger -eet cross /?or - a/ /Nas - gor -eet buy /?aj - a/ /Nas - gaj -eet divideIn the framework of SPE, we have been long-familiar with the terms such as abbreviatory conventions, conciseness, Minimize UR, regularisation format and Evaluation measures, etc. They will be considered here under IPA consonant chart and feature table where relevant information is given in table 7 belowTable 7(Imp = Imperative) (1sg = 1 sg. Imperfect) gathering A (data a. b.) - bilabial fricative consonant (Imp) b - bilabial plosive (1sg) m - bilabial nasal (1sg) Group B (data c. d. e. f.) t - alveolar plosive (Imp) r - alveolar fricative (Imp) d - alveolar plosive (1sg) n - alveolar nasal (1sg) Grou p C (data g.) c - palatalized plosive (Imp) ? - palatal plosive (1sg) ? - palatal nasal (1sg) Group D (data h. i. j. k.) k - velar plosive (Imp) ? - velar fricative (Imp) g - velar plosive (1sg) ? - velar nasal (1sg)From the distribution in table 7, we can draw some important information in the surface level. In Imperative classification (Imp), we can observe that the fricatives are plosives whereas in (1sg) group, we only observe the plosives ones. This observation is helpful for arriving at the deduction that under certain environment, fricatives/plosives are interpreted as () plosives. Furthermore, within each group, we can identify that the same stain of articulation is shared, i.e., bilabial / alveolar / palatal / velar. This observation will contribute to identify the relation between the changed consonants and the added nasal sound types.In the mean time, within each 1sg group, we can also observe that the nasal sound always precedes the plosive sound. This observation is useful for understanding whether the prefix Nasal functions are in a linear order. By applying the minimized major feature for these consonants, we can generate some crucial feature notations as noted below. 1. Fricatives -son, +cont 2. Plosives -son, -cont 3. Nasals +son, -contTherefore, now we can observe the culture of the feature cont in the course of transferring from fricatives to plosives and probably the dissimilation of the feature son between nasals and plosives. In order to satisfy the conditions of Minimize UR and the Evaluation measure, we could observe each sound in detail and add the feature voice where we can see that all plosives and nasals are +voiced as illustrated in table 8 below.Table 8 Features - con sonant Features- ramble of articulation Group A (data a. b.) - -son +cont +voiced (Imp) +ant -cor b - -son -cont +voiced (1sg) +ant -cor m - +son -cont +voiced (1sg) +ant -cor Group B (data c. d. e. f.) t - -son -cont -voiced (Imp) +ant +cor r - +son +cont +voiced (Imp) +ant +cor d - -son -cont +voiced (1sg) +ant +cor n - +son -cont +voiced (1sg) +ant +cor Group C (data g.) c - -son -cont -voiced (Imp) -ant +cor ? - -son -cont +voiced (1sg) -ant +cor ? - +son -cont +voiced (1sg) -ant +cor Group D (data h. i. j. k.) k - -son -cont -voiced (Imp) -ant -cor ? - -son +cont +voiced (Imp) -ant -cor g - -son -cont +voiced (1sg) -ant -cor ? - +son -cont +voiced (1sg) -ant -corFrom the features distribution above, we can observe several important generalizations. First, as we can see in the unexpended column, consonants could counterbalance themselves to the nasal during the shifting to plosive by preserving -cont and +voiced. Then, the consonant r in Group B is the only consonant in Imp wh ich has feature +son, therefore, we have to shift it to become -son as well in the course of shifting to plosive. However, this is definitely not a kind of adjustment to the nasal since it is conceivable that all nasals are found to be +son. Second, in the right column, we can observe that the insertions of prefixing nasals adjust themselves to the consonants and become bilabial / alveolar / palatal / velar nasal respectively in place of articulation. Furthermore, we attempt to figure out the adjustments above as assimilation, as well as the dis-adjustment of r as dissimilation. In sum, we can obtain two important rules in the language in question.Rule A -cont +cons +voice/+nas ______ -sonSuch rule entails the adjustment of the consonants to the nasals. Under this rule, becomes b t and r becomes d c becomes ? k and ? becomes g due to the prefixing nasal. Then, all fricatives become plosives as given th e following rule.Rule B +nas aPlace/______aPlaceIn rule B, the same place of articulation is construed by the notation aPlace represents here. This rule signals the adjustment of the nasals to the consonants. By using this rule, nasal will become m whenever aPlace is bilabial n whenever aPlace is alveolar ? whenever aPlace is palatal and ? whenever aPlace is velar. The origin nasal in prefixing cannot be observed from the given data set. For instance, if it is +nas, +cor then it should be a consonant n. Along the previous part, we have observed some ordering rules in the language of Kikuyu. Further in this part, we will try to figure out the ordering of the two rules we have mentioned in advance. Based on the SPE framework, we have seen that all morphological rules apply before all phonological rules. Although Kiparsky and many others believe the other way against this framework, we try to see whether this rule is indeed workable within the spirit of SPE framework.He re, the morphological rules are viewed as infix insertion, i.e. prefix /Nas/ suffix /-a/ and /eet?/ in the given data set which will apply in the first place and the phonological rules given in Rule A and Rule B above will apply in the second place. Now the question turns to which phonological rule applies in first order, being Rule A or Rule B. Suppose we take examples in data d and e from the given data set. First, let us look at data d. it seems that we will not find any contrast in data d with respect to the ordering of two rules and hence the result looks like the same. Then, try to compare with data e. Let see what happens.Table 9 Data d = from toma to ndomeet? If Rule A precedes Rule B Morphological Rule /Nas/ + /tom/ + /eet?/ =UR Rule A /Nas/ + /dom/ + /eet?/ Rule B /n/ + /dom/ + /eet?/ =SR If Rule B precedes Rule A Morphological Rule /Nas/ + /tom/ + /eet?/ =UR Rule B /n/ + /tom/ + /eet?/ Rule A /n/ + /dom/ + /eet?/ =SR Data e. from reha to ndeheet? If Rule A precedes Rule B Morphological Rule /Nas/ + /reh/ + /eet?/ =UR Rule A /Nas/ + /deh/ + /eet?/ Rule B /n/ + /deh/ + /eet?/ =SR If Rule B precedes Rule A Morphological Rule /Nas/ + /reh/ + /eet?/ =UR Rule B /n/ + /reh/ + /eet?/ Rule A /n/ + /deh/ + /eet?/ =SRAs we can see above, the comparison between data d and e indicates the same thing for ordering of two rules as well. This suggests that the ordering of rules do not have something to do with the result. It further suggests that the nasals and the derived consonants could have a relatively strong connection with each other, i.e. one co-exists with the other.Within the SPE framework, the data set has been analyzed in the form of features of lexical individual segments. We tried to apply the rules we have and they seems to work well. This gives further indication that the SPE framework can be considered as effective tool in explaining the phenomenon in data set of Kikuyu language. However, it seems that the relationship between the two rules is not t ransparent. The reason for this might be the difficulty in generating the only one rule kind of of two explaining such phenomenon in the SPE framework.The Post-SPE FrameworkAutosegmental phonology was introduced by John Goldsmith (1976) and re presented a great step forward in linguistic research. In the classical generative theory developed by Chomsky and Halle, phonological components were linear sequences of segments which themselves consisted of feature bundles. One of the downfalls of theSPE framework resided in the assumption that every segment had to correspond to exactly one feature specification and vice-versa (every feature specification had to correspond to exactly one segment). Consequently, many phonological phenomena (related to stress, lengthening, rhythm and intonation for instance) were left unexplained.SPE simply had no way of providing a proper account of prosodic phenomena. As stated by Goldsmith himself ((1999 p.137), Autosegmental phonology constitutes a parti cular arrogate about the geometry of phonetic and phonological representations. it suggests that the phonetic representation is composed of a set of several simultaneous sequences of these segments, with certain elementary constraints on how the various levels of sequences can be interrelated or associated. The main innovation brought about by Post-SPE framework is the fact that supra segmental features, such as stress or tone, are no longer confined to exactly one segment but can be shared by two or more segments and vice-versa. Some features, while remaining associated with a segment, are now handled separately. Many phonological phenomena can then be analyzed in terms of a restructuring or reorganization of the autosegments in a representation.Different from the first section, here we will analyze the data set of Kikuyu within the Post-SPE framework, or also know as the Autosegmental Phonology but within this paper we rather use the term Post SPE just for the sake of easiness in comparison. In this section, we will also consider the use of the IPA chart and feature notations for the discussion in the Post-SPE framework. Also in this part we might still view some rules from SPE framework and will be reviewed in the spirit of Post-SPE framework. Phenomenon such as assimilation and dissimilation will be approached to address the problems we found in the data set of Kikuyu Language. Of course, other theories within the Post-SPE will also be introduced. Let us start our discussion with the identification of features and spreading in this framework.In this framework, features will be viewed as independent features of their segments in order for them to be represented as auto-segments. We can observe in the data set of Kikuyu language that a phonological process can influence more than one consonant at a time. This might lead us to review the data we had in table 3 where mb t nd r nd c k ?g ? ?g, with the given two rules. We have mentioned earlier about a ssimilation in SPE, i.e. an alternation which copies a feature specification from the closest segment. Take Group A and Rule B as an example +nas bila Place / ______ bila Place N m / ______ / bIn the Post-SPE framework, assimilation is identified as the spreading of features to the neighbouring X-time slots. This means that an X-slot is associated with the two X-slots, resulting assimilation as illustrated below NX NX mX +ant+ant +ant -cor -cor -corFor the sake of easiness, some tiers are excluded. Here, X represents the changed consonant in Kikuyu. The nasal is considered another X slot, which is marked as N. After spreading, we see that the two X-slots share the feature of +ant and -cor. The feature from the neighboring X-slot could be deleted after the course of spreading. The replacement of Rule A in the Post SPE framework is a bit more complicated than Rule B since swing is involved. As for instance, consider Group A we have noted above, within the SPE framework, we will get the shifting below. +cons -cont +voice -son / +nas______ b / N______Then, let us apply this within the Post SPE framework to analyze this phenomenon where we have two X-slots represent Nasal and Consonant respectively during the course of alternation. An example of shifting from N to Nb is given below. X X X X / +son -son +son -son -cont +cont -cont -cont +voiced +voiced +voiced +voicedFor the sake of easiness, some tiers are reduced. We can see in the shifting process that -son, +voiced features are preserved during the shifting and +cont feature becomes -cont. In the SPE framework, it is conceivable that morphological rules apply before phonological rules, so we have a Nasal slot before Consonant slot in 1 sg. Imperfect i

A Report on Health and Safety in Architecture

A Report on Health and Safety in computer architectureIn simple terms, health and sentry go is about identifying risks and eliminating or controlling them to block up diagonals and occupational ill-health. Today there is a high focus on precaution in the industry. M whatsoever companies surrender documented that the safeguard and well being of their head for the hillsers and fellow human beings deserve the highest priority. In history, this is a major leap. If unity looks at the approach and many deaths during projects such as the great Chinese wall, which is salvage measured to be the largest social organization project to date, the dive is visible.One past Chinese romance states that each stone in the great Chinese wall stands for a career gone during the walls construction. Although no files are obtainable this myth may be nearer to fact than we would like to think. Archaeologists have revealed thousands of bodies covert in the foundation of the wall. Bodies were al so utilise to pull out up the walls thickness. It has been estimated that millions of workers lost their lives imputable to virgules, strong physical labour, hunger, and disease. This is in the order of size of a life per metre of wall lengthStatistics from the UK Health and Safety Executive show that normally one or devil the great unwashed are killed every week as a effect of construction work. Occupational ill-health, which keep build up over time, accounts for further loss of life. This fact sheet provides an foreword to health and safety best practice for construction companies and construction industry professionals, clients and their advisors. 2.2 million people work in Britains construction industry, making it the countrys biggest industry. It is also one of the most risky. In the last 25 years, over 2,800 people have died from injuries they received as a result of construction work. Many much have been injured or made ill.One in five construction sites failed health a nd safety checks during the latest national inspection proposal carried out by the Health and Safety Executive (HSE), Inspectors from Britains workplace regulator visited 1759 refurbishment sites during March and checked on how 2145 contractors were complying with health and safety regulations.On 348 sites sufficiently grave risks were discovered to warrant enforcement action being taken either stopping work straight away or ordering improvements to be made (Phil Hughes, 2005).PROVISIONAL TITLEHOW CAN WE IMPROVE THE SAFETY PERFORMANCES AT CONSTRUCTION SITES. STUDY THE DIFFERENT SAFETY MEASURES FOLLOWED IN commodious BRITAIN.This paper investigates the existing safety measures at construction sites in Britain. The review of literature touches on the importance of safety in the construction industry, the types of construction hazards, British Labour Law on the protection against occupational risks and industrial accidents, construction site security, etc. The background of Britain i s described a study of safety levels at construction sites is conducted through questionnaires. Conclusions are made about the legal approaches to the regulation of occupational safety and health.AIMS AND OBJECTIVESAimTo investigates the existing safety measures at construction sites. regard the importance of safety in the construction industry, the types of construction hazards, industrial accidents, construction site security, etc. Analysis the health and safety in British constructions.Objectives or Purpose of the studyTo achieve the goal of this study, it is needed toMake a brief overview of all health and safety in the present construction industries. essay the ways in which these safety measures are utilize in various construction industries.Study on British construction industries and their way of using safety measures.Identify recent accidents occur at construction industries in Britain.Attempt a brief comparison between the difference in safety measures using in Britain a nd other developing countries.Suggest various ways to reduce accidents at construction sites by using safety measures effectively.LITERATURE REVIEW ascribable to the online condition of the U.S. economy, the construction industry is throbbing. The amount of financial support from both government and independent contracts has been adequately decreased contractors are going to have a hard time funding and implementing their projects. Construction deals are being broken down and shut down due to a lack of bully while others are rolling without the correct needs, safety standards, and training programs. When the latter occurs there is a removed greater risk for a construction accident to happen.Structures used to facilitate construction, such as framework and scaffolding, are often non given the importance they deserve, because of their momentary nature and because their cost is not redeemable from a single construction as a line item. Consequently, in many countries, the accident and failure rate for temporary structures are higher than those in eternal structures. Every industrial accident leads to tragedies such as injury or death to persons, and damage to property and the environment, with all the linked direct and validatory costs and effort. Economically and professionally more important is the fact that accidents also lead to delays in the construction process. All these add up to un emergencyed repercussions, not only on the workers and the organizations concerned, but also on the entire construction industry, the community, and, if the accidents and failures are sufficiently great or frequent, on the government itself. Most of the accidents and failures in momentary structures may be traced mainly to minor mistakes in fabrication, to moderately inexpensive items of materials or equipment, and to oversight or negligence in the functioning of applicable codes and regulations (Alan Griffith, 2001).Statistic has shown that the be of casualty and perman ent disablement cases due to accident at the Malaysia construction sites is one of the uppermost as compared to the other sector. Even though the number of engineering accidents decreasing but the benefits paid to the accidents victims are ever increasing. Hence, there is an burning need to mitigate this problem. There are three basic travel that should be taken namely identifying the hazard, assessing the risk and domineering the risk to ensure a safe and conducive working condition. Implementation of effective hazards control methods may require different approaches due to changing of working environment at the construction sites. Latest technology employed at site had wiped out traditionalistic method of construction and consequently bring in new types of hazard to the industry.There is an state compulsion for workers to ensure their own safety and health and, in agreement with specific instructions and the preparation they have received, to make correct use of safety devices a nd observe all safety rules, both collective and individual, and any other means of protection, warning or control. This obligation also extends to the use of machinery, equipment, tools, substances and risky products to ensure that inappropriate use does not jeopardise the health and safety of other employees and persons who may be there in the place of work.The basis of British health and safety law is the Health and Safety at overwork etc Act 1974.The Act sets out the general duties which employers have towards employees and members of the public, and employees have to themselves and to each other. These duties are capable in the Act by the code of so far as is reasonably practicable. In other words, an employer does not have to take method to avoid or reduce the risk if they are technically hopeless or if the time, trouble or cost of the measures would be grossly disproportionate to the risk. What the law requires here is what superior management and general sense would lead e mployers to do anyway that is, to look at what the risks are and take reasonable measures to tackle them. The Management of Health and Safety at Work Regulations 1999 (the Management Regulations) generally make more clear what employers are required to do to manage health and safety under the Health and Safety at Work Act. Like the Act, they contribute to every work activity (Vivian Ramsey, 2007).The injure and death rate on buildings sites in London makes construction work the most risky job in the capital. People are injured every day and on average someone dies every month. What makes this even more appalling is that these are the least accident rates yet recorded. Our report is concerned with improving the health and well-being of Londons construction workers at a time when construction work is booming. Nearly 5 billion is being spent each year, just on new building projects. It is clear that we are not yet doing all we can to stop accidents. The industry has set itself targets to reduce accidents, but is not yet on track to reduce these targets. Everyone involved in commissioning, delivering and working in construction still must do more to make this industry as safe as any other. We should not accept as a fact of life that construction work is dangerous and nothing can be done. The 2012 Olympics is the perfect cabinet for how construction projects can be Commissioned and delivered to the highest standard. We do not want a repeat of the Situation in Athens where 14 workers died on the projects unswervingly associated with the Olympics and as many as 26 in the building of chase transport infrastructure (Richard Fellows, 2001).Complete safety does not exist. Safety is often defined as taking acceptable risks. This recognises that in fact every activity, whether it is madcap a car, cooking in the kitchen or working on a drilling rig has linked risks. By accepting that there will perpetually be a certain risk concerned it is possible to reduce risks, by d ropping the chance of an unsafe event and mitigating its result. Lack of training has been know as one of the major contributory factors in accidents and ill health in construction. Many activities are made safe simply by ensuring that those doing the work have knowledge of and understand the importance of safe practices. The incidence of inspections depends on the nature and place of work. For example, following the first inspection, work at places over two metres in height require weekly inspections. In contrast, for work in excavations (including shafts and tunnels), inspections are necessary at the start of every shift. Inspections help to ensure that safety is monitored during changing site circumstances. Reports detailing inspections are generally required every time an inspection is carried out, but there are exceptions. ExecutiveResearch methodologyIn order to understand the various health and safety measures in the present construction industries in Britain different meth odologies have to be adopted.Primary Sources interviewDirect Interview is one of the main sources of primary information today. This method would be used for the internal research. The internal research will focus on a few semi-structured interviews with a few senior and top managers. The intention is to formulate a true picture of the health and safety measures used in Great Britain These interviews will help to find out the reasons for the accidents occurring in construction industries.QuestionnairesAnother methodology that I hope to adopt for my research is the questionnaires. Questionnaires are more economical, and easier to arrange the answers too will be in a standardized format. In situations of difficulty to get appointments with the top-level managers this method would be used. Postal questionnaires will be sent to top managers of the Companies and the responses can be analyzed.Secondary SourcesBook ReviewsThe external research will be carried out through the reading and u nderstanding of promulgated material. This includes books and articles written on the importance of safety in the construction industry, the types of construction hazards, British Labour Law on the protection against occupational risks and industrial accidents, construction site security. Etc.Internet ResearchInternet research is another source of secondary data. This will be used to gather historic and current information on health and safety in the world especially in Britain. This will also help us to get information on Company infrastucture as a whole.DocumentsDocuments can be treated as a source of data in their own right. In effect it can be an alternative to questionnaires, interviews or observation. This includes published materials of company detailsData analysisIn order to analyze the data both quantitative and soft research has to be performed.Qualitative researchIn qualitative research words are the units of analysis. Qualitative research tends to be associated with des cription. The data needed for qualitative analysis has to be gathered from interviews and questionnaires. Methods like ethnography will be used for the process of qualitative analysis and ethnographic data storage package will be used to store information. There are many advantages of using such software which will help store the data safely, the data can be coded easily, and retrieval of data will be more reliable. Computerization removes barriers and scales to the scale and complexity of analysis. There are virtually no clerical limits to how much stuff you get now, and few to how complex it is. (Richards and Richards 199340)Quantitative researchQuantitative research tends to be associated with numbers, as the unit of analysis and it tends to be associated with statistical data. Charts and graphs have to be constructed from the figures and information gathered from the questionnaires and researches. Word processing and spreadsheet packages can be used for this purpose. Informatio n in the form of numbers will be gathered from Company Mangers by using different data collection tools like questionnaires, review of previous documents etc. and the data will be used to construct meaningful figures and charts using software.Form of PresentationThe dissertation will be presented in a written form supplemented with charts showing current and historical data.Projected FindingsThe importance of health and safety measures in the construction industries and the methods used in Britain.REFERENCESPhil Hughes (MSc, FIOSH, RSP.), Ed Ferrett , Introduction to health and safety in construction, Butterworth-Heinemann 2 mutation (2005)Alan Griffith, Tim Howarth, Construction health and safety management, Longman (2001)Vivian Ramsey, Construction law handbook, Thomas Telford Ltd (2007)Richard Fellows, David Langford, Robert Newcombe, Sydney Urry, Construction Management in Practice, WileyBlackwell 2nd Edition edition (2001)http//www.forthconstruction.co.uk/downloads/an-introduc tion-to-health-safety.pdf accessed on 14/12/09 at 5.30 pmhttp//www.engineeringpage.com/technology/safety/safety_induction.html accessed on 14/12/09 at 6.00 pmhttp//www.hse.gov.uk/construction/index.htm accessed on 14/12/09 at 6.00 pmhttp//www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/149934.php accessed on 14/12/09 at 10.30 pmhttp//www.profkrishna.com/ProfK-Assets/CAFEOPaper.pdf accessed on 15/12/09 at 8.30 pmhttp//eprints.utm.my/445/1/1A_5._Abdul_Rahim_Hazard_at_construction_site_PAGE_(95-104).pdf accessed on 15/12/09 at 11.30 pmhttp//rome.angloinfo.com/countries/italy/work13.asp accessed on 15/12/09 at 12.30 amhttp//www.hse.gov.uk/pubns/hsc13.pdf accessed on 16/12/09 at 1.30 pmhttp//www.london.gov.uk/assembly/reports/health/construction.pdf accessed on 16/12/09 at 5.30 pmhttp//www.healthandsafety.co.uk/conregs.htm accessed on 16/12/09 at 10.00 pmBIBLIOGRAPHY.John R. Illingworth, Construction methods and planning, Taylor Francis, 2 edition (2000)http//www.constructionhealthandsafety.co.uk/ ac cessed on 16/12/09 at 12.30 amhttp//www.theiet.org/publishing/books/bus-comp/construction-health-safety.cfm accessed on 16/12/09 at 1.00 am

Dogma :: essays papers

DogmaDogma is the latest movie from director Kevin Smith, whose previous movies Clerks, Mallrats, and Chasing Amy have become fury hits. This movie should be no different from the last three. Smith has more star power then ever to work with in this movie with such stars as Ben Affleck (who had a part in the Mallrats), Matt Damon, Chris Rock, Linda Fiorentino, Salma Hayek, and even rocker Alanis Morissette as God.The story is about both fallen angels, Affleck, and Damon, who has spent the last two thousand years on Earth and are looking to find their way back to heaven. But if they get their wish and pass through the archway of St. Michaels Church history would be reversed and mankind will be destroyed. So God picks an abortion clinic worker, Fiorentino, along with the 13th apostle, Rock, and two profits, Jay and tacit Bob (both from Clerks, and Mallrats) to stop the two angels. Smith knows how to direct a great movie with out the high budget explosive action, and special effects . He tidy sum draw you in with great dialogue, and funny everyday situations. Smith can take a serious subject matter, such as Christianity in the States today, and turn it into a funny comedy without coming off harsh. Smith first broke onto the scene with Clerks, A funny story of a snug store worker who is called in on his day off, and a video store worker who wants nothing to do with the public he so seriously serves. The movie is shot in black and white, but youll soon find yourself not even noticing it once you get locked into a great story. In Smiths bordering movie, Mallrats, Smith directs a story about a man who breaks up with her girlfriend because her father wants her to be a contestant on his new geological dating show on public access TV. But soon all hell breaks loose when the Mall security guard has other plans, but with the help oneself of Jay and Silent Bob things at the mall are about to change.Chasing Amy was Smiths last movie before

Reservoir Dogs :: essays research papers

1. A cult film.It is a known fact that taste in movies is something that is incompatible for every person. But that doesnt mean great deal cant agree on anything in this matter.Some films capture the hearts of many people either over the world, and are loved and remembered by all. These films deserve a place in history books. We refer to them as Classics. E.g. Citizen Kane, Casablanca, The Godfather Of course not all films that are viewed by millions of people are classics. Some film producers like Jerry Bruckheimer are known to produce action-packed, hyped up, commercial films with low artistic value and kick in billions of dollars. These films are called box office hits, because their main success is at the box office.E.g. Pirates of the Caribbean, American Pie, Titanic But what exactly is a cult hit? Cambridge innovative learners dictionary defines cult as some mavin or something that has become very popular with a occurrence group of people.What is a particular group of p eople you might ask. Well the answer to that question can be traced back to the first-class honours degree of the art of cinematography. Since the beginning of cinema there shoot been film fans and film fanatics. The latter were - and still are those who live and die for movies, people who see five new films a week. These people are what one would call particular. They are no longer satisfied by the average Hollywood movie. They want something special, something that sets the film above others.But what exactly makes germ Dogs a cult film?2. TarantinoIn January of 1991 a film titled Reservoir Dogs (1992) hit the Sundance Film festival. The writer-director was a first-timer by the name of Quentin Tarantino. The film garnered full of life acclaim and the director became a legend in the England, UK and the cult film circuit.The fact that it was directed by Tarantino was enough to make sure this movie would be one.Of course this did not happen over night after having seen his three first films it became clear that he had some trademarks of his own that made his movies original.There is constantly a long pointless conversation that is remotely or not at all relevant for the course of the movie. E.g. the Madonna conversation in the beginning sequence of Reservoir Dogs, the the differences of European fast food conversation in Pulp Fiction He always ads a Dutch element to his films

grahams gas law :: essays research papers

GAS LAWSKINETIC ENERGY/ GRAHAMS LAW LABPurposeTo observe how masses of atoms and molecules make a motion their rate of diffusion, and explain our observations in terms of mass, velocity, kinetic energy and temperature.Warm-up Question1.     What is the definition of temperature?Temperature is a measure of the average Kinetic Energy of the particles composition a material.2.     What is the definition of diffusion?Diffusion is a spontaneous spreading of particles until they are uniformly distributed in their container.3.     If we increase the temperature of sample of vaunt, then what about the gas molecules will have to change?The gas molecules would begin to increase in speed since the temperature would increase.4.     The element iodine (I2) diffuses more slowly than ethanol (CH3CH2CH2OH). Why is this? unity is heavier in atomic mass then ethanol, slowing down its process to diffuse. Iodine weighs 2 53.6u while ethanol weighs 60.03u, giving ethanol a faster diffusions rate. map A1.     Obtain a glass tube and wash it with water. Dry the outside of the tube with a paper towel. Next, squirt some acetone into the tube. A small amount is all that is needed. Then dry the inside of the tube by passing air through the tube (use a fan, the window, blow through it, etc.)2.     Use chalk to label one end of your lab station, "HC1," and the other end, "NH3."3.     Lay the glass tube on the slacken and place the thermometer on the table next to the tube.4.     CATION THE NH3 AND THE HCI ARE IN VERY CONCENTRATED FORMS. DO NOT ALLOW EITHER CHEMICAL TO COME INTO CONTACT WITH YOUR SKIN. IF THE NH3 OR HCl SPILLS, GET A DAMP PAPER TOWEL AND CLEAN IT UP IMMEDIATELY5.     Obtain 1 small bottle of HCI and 1 small bottle of NH3. Place to each one bottle in their respective ends of t he lab table. Obtain forceps, label them, "HC1" or NH3"with tape, and place them at their respective end of the lab table.6.     Record the temperature of the air some the tube in the data table.7.     Separate the cotton ball into pieces small enough to stuff into the ends of the glass tube. Do not put them into the tube yet. 8.      eyepatch holding the cotton ball with the forceps, place 4 drops of HCl or NH3 (whichever corresponds to the label on the forceps).9.     Repeat step 8 with the other chemical. You should now have ii small cotton balls, one with 7 drops of HCI, one with 7 drops of NH3. Keep them at their respective ends of the lab station.

For Their Rights as Citizens :: essays papers

For Their Rights as CitizensDuring the Civil War, almost 200,000 African Americans fought alongside ashenpeople. What did these African Americans compact for? Some fought for the freedom ofothers of their kind. While others fought for equality in the eyes of white people. Even some fought for revenge against the Southern way of life. But what I debate that they fought for was their rights as citizens. They wanted to be treated as Citizens of the United States of America, and have all of the privileges endowed to citizens.If we press out to maintain a republican Government, we want Republican privileges.....all we ask is the proper enjoyment of the rights of citizenship, p205. This tells me that the African Americans were thinking of their rights of citizenship before the war had concluded. To them, being a citizen of the United States meant that they coulddo what ever they wanted to do. They could pursue dreams they had to go visiteverywhere and anywhere in this country freely. Nobody would be holding them down orselling off their children anymore. They would no longer be automatons, they would havea say in what they wanted to accomplish in life, from banking to farming, to being landowners themselves.The African Americans also wanted to demonstrate that they were willing to fightfor their rights. Sergeant Charles Singer wrote, show the whole world that we are willing to fight for our rights... p.215. This shows that they wanted to prove that they were willing to die for those rights allotted to citizens. Let us by a common cause now made holy by our blood, raise ourselves from the mire, p.216. To me this shows the willingness of the African Americans to join together fight for a cause, and non fear death. Because in the end, they would earn citizenship and all of its benefits. This is a goodreason to fight, earn freedom from oppression, and be given the rights allotted to allcitizens.Some engagement under the banner of citizenship and it s rights, believed that theydisserved the same rights as the white people. ...I am not willing to fight for anything less that the white man fights for.......Give me my rights, the rights that this Government owes me, the same rights that the white man has, p.208. This tells me that the African Americans wanted no less than what the white people already had.